Correct grammar is the start. Style is choosing the structures that make your meaning clear, direct and lively.
🎛️ Active and passive voice
In the active voice the subject performs the action: The committee approved the plan. In the passive voice the subject receives it: The plan was approved by the committee. Active is usually clearer and shorter; passive is useful when the doer is unknown or unimportant.
active: The dog bit the postman. (6 words)
passive: The postman was bitten by the dog. (7 words)
unknown doer: My bike was stolen.
passive = form of “be” + past participle
🖼️ See it
Cut padding and prefer the active voice (“the dog chased the cat”) unless the doer of the action is unknown or unimportant.
✂️ Modifiers and concision
A dangling modifier has nothing sensible to describe: Walking to school, the rain started. (the rain was not walking). A misplaced modifier sits too far from the word it describes. Concision means cutting empty words.
wordy: Due to the fact that it was raining, we stayed in. (11 words)
concise: Because it was raining, we stayed in. (7 words)
dangling: Walking to school, the rain started.
fixed: Walking to school, I felt the rain start.
parallel structure: She likes running, swimming and cycling.
Cut filler: “in order to” → “to”, “at this point in time” → “now”.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 6
Voice
Which sentence is in the passive voice?
Look for was + participle.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 6
Dangling modifier
Which sentence has a dangling modifier?
Who is walking?
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 6
Parallel structure
Which sentence has parallel structure?
Same form each time.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 6
Concision
Which is the most concise rewrite of “Due to the fact that it was raining”?
Shortest clear version.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 6
Count the words: “The postman was bitten by the dog.”
How many words?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Count them.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 6
“Due to the fact that it was raining, we stayed in” becomes “Because it was raining, we stayed in.”
How many words are saved?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Subtract the counts.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
The active voice is usually:
Question 2 of 5
A good reason to use passive voice is when:
Question 3 of 5
A misplaced modifier is one that:
Question 4 of 5
Which is wordy?
Question 5 of 5
Parallelism means:
Lesson 2 · Argument
🗣️ Rhetoric & Argument
Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Understanding how speakers and writers persuade helps you recognise it and use it well.
🔺 The rhetorical situation
Every text has a speaker, an audience, a purpose, a context and a message. Choices about tone and evidence depend on who is being addressed and why. The appeals are ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion) and logos (logic).
speaker: a doctor
audience: parents
purpose: persuade them to vaccinate
ethos: “As a paediatrician for 20 years…”
logos: “It prevents 9 out of 10 cases.”
pathos: “Think of the children you protect.”
🖼️ See it
Strong arguments balance credibility, feeling and reason, delivered at a moment when the audience will listen.
🧠 Claims, warrants and fallacies
An argument has a claim, evidence and a warrant (the reasoning connecting them). A logical fallacy is flawed reasoning, for example an ad hominem (attacking the person), a straw man (misrepresenting the other side), a false dilemma (only two options) or a slippery slope.
ad hominem: “You can’t trust her opinion, she’s only 15.”
straw man: “He wants less homework, so he wants no learning.”
false dilemma: “Either we ban phones or grades will collapse.”
slippery slope: “If we allow one late pass, soon nobody will come on time.”
bandwagon: “Everyone is doing it, so it must be right.”
Attack the argument, not the person.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
Ethos
“As a doctor with 20 years’ experience…” is an appeal to:
Credibility.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 7
Ad hominem
“You can’t trust her opinion, she’s only 15.” is an example of:
Against the person.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 7
False dilemma
“Either we ban phones or grades will collapse.” is a:
Only two choices.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Straw man
“He wants less homework, so he wants no learning.” is a:
Distorting the claim.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
A rhetorical situation has speaker, audience, purpose, context and message.
How many elements is that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Count them.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
The three rhetorical appeals are ethos, pathos and logos.
How many appeals are there?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Count them.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
A speaker says it prevents 9 out of 10 cases.
What percentage of cases does it prevent?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
%
Convert to a percentage.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
A warrant in an argument is:
Question 2 of 5
A bandwagon fallacy says that something is true because:
Question 3 of 5
Which is a strong counter to a fallacy?
Question 4 of 5
The audience of a text is:
Question 5 of 5
Pathos is an appeal to:
Lesson 3 · Literature
🧩 Analysing a Short Story
Analysing a story means asking how the writer’s choices create meaning, not just what happens.
🪞 Symbol, irony and tone
A symbol is an object, person or place that stands for an idea (a cage for lost freedom). Irony is a gap between expectation and reality: verbal (saying the opposite), situational (an outcome opposite to what is expected) and dramatic (the audience knows more than the characters). Tone is the writer’s attitude, and mood is the feeling for the reader.
verbal irony: “What lovely weather,” he said, in a downpour.
situational irony: a fire station burns down.
dramatic irony: we know the box holds a bomb; the hero does not.
symbol: a locked door = missed opportunity
🖼️ See it
Short stories compress the arc: they often start close to the conflict, reach the climax quickly and end soon after.
🔬 How to analyse
Ask four questions: What does the writer do (a device or choice)? Where (a quotation)? Why does it matter (effect on the reader)? So what (how it supports the theme)? Foreshadowing, flashback, pacing and word choice are all choices.
Point: The author uses a storm to build tension.
Evidence: “The sky darkened and the wind began to howl.”
Explain: The dark, loud weather suggests danger to come.
Link: This supports the theme that trouble gathers before it strikes.
PEEL = Point, Evidence, Explain, Link (4 parts)
Short quotations embedded in your own sentences are stronger than long ones.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 6
Situational irony
Which is situational irony?
Opposite of expected.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 6
Dramatic irony
Dramatic irony is when:
Audience knows.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 6
Symbol
A caged bird in a story most likely symbolises:
What does a cage mean?
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 6
Foreshadowing
Foreshadowing is:
Hints ahead.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 6
PEEL stands for Point, Evidence, Explain, Link.
How many parts is that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Count the letters.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 6
An analytical paragraph has 1 point, 1 quotation, 2 sentences of explanation and 1 link sentence.
How many sentences is that in total?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Add them.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Tone is:
Question 2 of 5
Verbal irony is when someone:
Question 3 of 5
A flashback shows:
Question 4 of 5
When analysing, “so what?” asks about:
Question 5 of 5
Which quotation use is best?
Lesson 4 · Writing
🏗️ Essay Structure
A good essay is organised so a reader can follow the argument from start to finish. The structure is a thesis, support and a conclusion.
📐 Thesis and structure
The introduction hooks the reader, gives background and ends in a thesis statement: an arguable claim that answers the question. Each body paragraph has a topic sentence, evidence, explanation and a link back to the thesis. The conclusion restates the thesis in fresh words and says why it matters.
five-paragraph essay:
1 introduction (thesis)
2 body paragraph 1
3 body paragraph 2
4 body paragraph 3
5 conclusion
body paragraphs = 5 − 2 = 3
🖼️ See it
Every body paragraph should support the thesis in the introduction.
🔄 Revising
Revise in rounds: first content and organisation (is the thesis clear? does each paragraph support it?), then sentences and word choice, then proofreading for spelling and punctuation. Use transitions (however, therefore, in addition) to link ideas.
weak thesis: Social media is a topic many people discuss.
strong thesis: Schools should teach media literacy because it helps students judge sources and resist misinformation.
transitions: addition (also), contrast (however), result (therefore), example (for instance)
Read your essay aloud to hear where it is unclear.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 6
Thesis
A thesis statement should be:
Can someone disagree?
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 6
Strong thesis
Which is the strongest thesis?
It argues something.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 6
Topic sentence
A topic sentence:
The paragraph’s main point.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 6
Transition
Which word signals contrast?
But.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 6
A five-paragraph essay has an introduction and a conclusion.
How many body paragraphs does it have?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Subtract.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 6
An essay of 600 words has 5 paragraphs of equal length.
How many words is each paragraph?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Divide.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
A conclusion should:
Question 2 of 5
Proofreading is done:
Question 3 of 5
An outline helps you to:
Question 4 of 5
Evidence in a body paragraph is:
Question 5 of 5
A hook in the introduction is:
Lesson 5 · Research
🔬 Research & Evaluating Sources
Research skills are about finding reliable information, using it fairly and giving credit. They matter in every subject.
🧭 Finding and judging sources
Good research starts with a question and good search terms. Judge each source with CRAAP: Currency (how recent), Relevance, Authority (who wrote it), Accuracy (is it supported) and Purpose (to inform, sell or persuade).
CRAAP = 5 criteria
search tips: use quotes for an exact phrase: “climate change effects”
use AND / OR / NOT to narrow or widen
reliable: .gov, .edu, peer-reviewed journals
check: author, date, references
🖼️ See it
Ask these five questions of every source. A source that fails more than one is a poor basis for research.
📎 Quoting, paraphrasing and citing
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s words or ideas as your own. Avoid it by quoting (exact words in quotation marks), paraphrasing (your own words, still cited) and summarising. Always include a citation and a bibliography or works cited list.
quote: “Knowledge is power.” (Bacon, 1597)
paraphrase: Bacon argued that knowing things gives people strength.
citation parts: author, title, publisher, date, URL
sources used: 4 books + 3 websites = 7 entries
Keep a source list as you research, not at the end.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
Plagiarism
Which counts as plagiarism?
No credit given.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 7
Authority
In CRAAP, “authority” asks:
Who is speaking?
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 7
Paraphrase
A paraphrase:
Own words, cited.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Search
Putting a phrase in quotation marks in a search:
Exact.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
CRAAP is a test with five criteria.
How many criteria are there?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Count the letters.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
A student used 4 books and 3 websites.
How many entries are needed in the works cited list?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Add them.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
In 2024 a student found a source from 2004. For a fast-changing topic, sources should usually be less than 10 years old.
How old was the source when the student found it?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Which source is usually most reliable?
Question 2 of 5
A bibliography lists:
Question 3 of 5
Bias in a source means:
Question 4 of 5
A primary source is:
Question 5 of 5
Which is the first step of research?
Lesson 6 · Drama
🎭 Introducing Shakespeare
Shakespeare’s plays were written to be performed. Understanding stage conventions and verse makes the language easier to follow.
🏛️ Plays and the stage
A play is divided into acts and scenes. Key conventions: the soliloquy (a character alone on stage speaking thoughts), the aside (a remark to the audience), stage directions, and dramatic irony. Shakespeare’s tragedies usually have five acts, a flawed hero and a tragic end. His company performed at the Globe in London.
Romeo and Juliet: a tragedy in 5 acts
soliloquy: a character’s thoughts spoken alone
aside: brief comment to the audience
prologue: the opening speech (14 lines, in sonnet form)
🖼️ See it
Shakespeare wrote about 37 plays for audiences who stood in the yard of an open-air theatre. Their language is Early Modern English.
📜 Verse and language
Much of the dialogue is in blank verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter (10 syllables, 5 stresses per line). Characters of lower status often speak in prose. Early Modern English uses thou/thee (you), thy (your), wherefore (why), hath (has).
iambic pentameter: da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM = 10 syllables
“Wherefore art thou Romeo?” → Why are you Romeo?
Shakespearean sonnet: 14 lines (ABAB CDCD EFEF GG)
Read it aloud and follow the punctuation, not the line endings, to find the sense.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
Soliloquy
A soliloquy is:
Solo.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 7
Aside
An aside is:
Quick whisper.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 7
Wherefore
In “Wherefore art thou Romeo?”, “wherefore” means:
Not where.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Blank verse
Blank verse is:
No rhyme.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
Iambic pentameter has how many syllables per line?
Give the number.
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Penta means five.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
A Shakespearean sonnet has how many lines?
Give the number.
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Recall the form.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
A Shakespearean tragedy is divided into acts.
How many acts does it usually have?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Remember the structure.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
The Globe was:
Question 2 of 5
A tragic hero is:
Question 3 of 5
“Thy” means:
Question 4 of 5
Characters of lower status often speak in:
Question 5 of 5
A prologue is:
Final Challenge
🏆 12-Question Challenge Quiz
Questions from every topic in this course. Pick an answer for each one, then hit Check My Answers.
0 / 12
💪 Keep practicing — go back through the lessons and retake the quiz!
Q1 · Style: Voice, Modifiers & Concision
“The cake was eaten by the children” is in the:
Q2 · Style: Voice, Modifiers & Concision
Parallelism means:
Q3 · Rhetoric & Argument
A slippery slope argument claims that:
Q4 · Rhetoric & Argument
Pathos is an appeal to:
Q5 · Analysing a Short Story
A symbol is something that:
Q6 · Analysing a Short Story
Which quotation use is best?
Q7 · Essay Structure
The thesis usually appears:
Q8 · Essay Structure
A hook in the introduction is:
Q9 · Research & Evaluating Sources
Summarising a source still requires:
Q10 · Research & Evaluating Sources
Which is the first step of research?
Q11 · Introducing Shakespeare
Which feature shows a character’s private thoughts?