History is the study of the past using evidence. Historians read sources carefully, ask who made them and why, and place events on a timeline.
📜 Sources and evidence
A primary source comes from the time being studied: a letter, law, photograph, coin or building. A secondary source is written later by someone who studied the evidence, such as a textbook. To judge any source, ask who made it, when, why and for whom. Every source has a point of view, so historians compare several sources (corroboration) before drawing a conclusion.
primary: a soldier’s diary from the battle
secondary: a textbook about the battle written 100 years later
questions: Who wrote it? When? Why? Can I check it against another source?
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⏳ Timelines, BCE and CE
Years are counted from the traditional birth year of Jesus: BCE (Before Common Era) years count down toward 1, and CE (Common Era) years count up. There is no year 0. A decade is 10 years, a century is 100 years and a millennium is 1000 years. The 1st century is the years 1–100, so the year 1066 is in the 11th century.
400 BCE → 300 BCE = 100 years (subtract: 400 − 300)
1066 → century: 1066 / 100 = 10.66 → round UP → 11th century
timeline scale 1 cm = 100 years: 1500 years → 15 cm
Crossing 1 CE? Add the two years and subtract 1, because there is no year 0. Within BCE or within CE, simply subtract.
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Primary source
Which is a primary source about a medieval battle?
Made at the time.
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Secondary source
A secondary source is one that:
Made afterwards.
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Corroboration
Historians corroborate evidence by:
Compare.
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BCE
Which year is earlier?
Counting down.
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A civilisation lasted from 400 BCE to 300 BCE.
How many years is that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Both are BCE, so subtract.
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A famous battle took place in the year 1066.
Which century was that? (Give the number, e.g. 5 for the 5th.)
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Round up.
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A timeline uses 1 cm for every 100 years.
How long, in cm, is a line showing 1500 years?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
cm
Divide.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
A primary source is:
Question 2 of 5
A century is:
Question 3 of 5
Why do historians ask “who made this source and why”?
Question 4 of 5
There is no year 0 because:
Question 5 of 5
Which is the best way to learn about daily life in ancient Egypt?
Lesson 2 · River civilisations
🏺 Mesopotamia & Egypt
The first cities and states grew beside great rivers, where flooding made farming rich and where people needed writing, laws and leaders to organise the harvest.
🌾 Between the rivers
Mesopotamia means “between the rivers”, the Tigris and Euphrates in modern Iraq. In Sumer, cities such as Ur and Uruk arose around 3500 BCE. The Sumerians invented cuneiform (wedge-shaped writing on clay tablets, about 3200 BCE), the wheel and early mathematics. King Hammurabi of Babylon issued a law code (about 1754 BCE) of 282 laws carved on a stone pillar so that everyone could see them.
Sumer: cities about 3500 BCE
cuneiform: about 3200 BCE → 3500 − 3200 = 300 years after the first cities
Hammurabi’s code: about 1754 BCE, 282 laws
Sumerian cities → Hammurabi: 3500 − 1754 = 1746 years
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Dates are approximate (c. = circa, “around”).
🔺 The gift of the Nile
Egypt depended on the Nile, whose yearly flood left rich black silt. Upper and Lower Egypt were united about 3100 BCE under King Narmer (Menes). Kings, called pharaohs, were seen as gods. The Great Pyramid of Giza was built for Pharaoh Khufu about 2560 BCE; it is made of about 2.3 million blocks and was originally about 146 m tall. Egyptians wrote in hieroglyphs. The Rosetta Stone, found in 1799, carried the same text in three scripts, and Jean-François Champollion used it to decipher hieroglyphs in 1822.
Rosetta Stone found 1799, deciphered 1822: 1822 − 1799 = 23 years
Great Pyramid built over about 20 years with 2 300 000 blocks:
2 300 000 / 20 = 115 000 blocks a year
Khufu (2560 BCE) → Cleopatra died (30 BCE): 2560 − 30 = 2530 years
Cleopatra lived closer in time to us than to the building of the Great Pyramid. The pyramid was already about 2500 years old in her day.
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Cuneiform
Cuneiform was written by pressing:
Clay tablets.
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Hammurabi
Hammurabi’s Code was carved on a stone pillar so that:
Public laws.
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Nile flood
The Nile’s yearly flood helped Egyptian farming by:
Fertile mud.
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Rosetta Stone
The Rosetta Stone helped decipher hieroglyphs because it:
Three versions.
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The Rosetta Stone was found in 1799 and hieroglyphs were deciphered in 1822.
How many years later was that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
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The Great Pyramid took about 20 years to build and holds about 2 300 000 blocks.
About how many blocks were placed each year?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
blocks
Divide.
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The Great Pyramid was built about 2560 BCE. Cleopatra died in 30 BCE.
How many years between them?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Both are BCE, so subtract.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Question 1 of 5
Mesopotamia means:
Question 2 of 5
Egyptian kings were called:
Question 3 of 5
Why did early cities develop beside rivers?
Question 4 of 5
Sumerians are credited with inventing:
Question 5 of 5
The Egyptian script of picture symbols is called:
Lesson 3 · River civilisations
🐉 The Indus Valley & Ancient China
On the Indus and Yellow rivers, two more early civilisations grew, one famous for planned cities and the other for the first lasting empire.
🏘️ The Indus Valley
The Indus Valley (Harappan) civilisation flourished in what is now Pakistan and northwest India, with its mature phase from about 2600 to 1900 BCE. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were laid out on a grid of streets, with brick houses, covered drains and public baths. Traders used standard weights and carved seals with a script that has not yet been deciphered, so much about its rulers remains unknown.
mature phase 2600 BCE → 1900 BCE: 2600 − 1900 = 700 years
standard weight ratios: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 … (doubling)
weight 8 is how many times weight 2? 8 / 2 = 4
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Dates are approximate for the earliest periods.
🧱 Early China
The Shang dynasty (about 1600–1046 BCE) used oracle bones, the earliest Chinese writing. The Zhou claimed the Mandate of Heaven: a ruler governs only while he rules well. In 221 BCE Qin Shi Huang unified China, standardised writing, weights and measures, and began linking walls into the first Great Wall; his tomb holds the Terracotta Army. The Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) opened the Silk Road, a trade route about 6400 km long, and Cai Lun reported making paper in 105 CE.
Shang: 1600 − 1046 = 554 years
Qin unified China 221 BCE, Qin dynasty ended 206 BCE: 221 − 206 = 15 years
Silk Road about 6400 km, caravan 40 km a day:
6400 / 40 = 160 days
Silk Road goods and ideas travelled both ways: silk, paper and spices east to west; horses, glass and Buddhism in other directions.
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Mohenjo-daro
Which feature shows careful planning in Indus Valley cities?
Streets and drains.
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Script
What is true about the Indus script?
Unread.
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Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven said that a ruler:
Conditional.
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Qin unification
Which was done by Qin Shi Huang?
Standardised.
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The mature Indus civilisation lasted from about 2600 to 1900 BCE.
How many years is that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
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The Shang dynasty ruled from about 1600 to 1046 BCE.
About how many years?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
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The Silk Road is about 6400 km long. A caravan covers 40 km a day.
How many days to travel the whole route?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
days
Divide.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were cities of the:
Question 2 of 5
The oldest known Chinese writing is found on:
Question 3 of 5
Who first unified China in 221 BCE?
Question 4 of 5
The Terracotta Army was made to:
Question 5 of 5
The Silk Road was important because it:
Lesson 4 · Classical world
🏛️ Ancient Greece
Greek city-states invented democracy, philosophy and drama, and their ideas still shape how we think and govern.
🗳️ City-states and democracy
Greece was divided into independent city-states (poleis). Sparta trained its citizens for war. Athens developed democracy (“rule by the people”) after the reforms of Cleisthenes in about 508 BCE. Citizens voted directly in the Assembly, but only adult male citizens could take part, which left out women, enslaved people and foreigners. Roughly one in ten residents had a vote.
Athenian democracy: about 508 BCE
illustration: 300 000 residents, about 1 in 10 could vote
300 000 / 10 = 30 000 voters
Peloponnesian War: 431 BCE → 404 BCE = 27 years
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⚔️ War, Golden Age and Alexander
Greek states defeated the Persian invasions at Marathon (490 BCE) and Salamis (480 BCE). Under Pericles Athens entered its Golden Age: the Parthenon was built in 447–432 BCE, and thinkers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle asked questions about knowledge and justice. Athens and Sparta then fought the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), which Sparta won. Alexander the Great of Macedon ruled 336–323 BCE and built an empire stretching from Greece to India, spreading Greek culture.
Marathon 490 BCE → Salamis 480 BCE: 490 − 480 = 10 years
Parthenon built 447 → 432 BCE = 15 years
Alexander’s reign: 336 − 323 = 13 years
Olympic Games began in 776 BCE (traditional date) at Olympia, in honour of Zeus. Warring states paused fighting for the games.
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Democracy
The word democracy means:
People power.
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Athens vote
Who could vote in the Athenian Assembly?
Limited group.
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Sparta
Sparta was best known for its:
Soldiers.
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Alexander
Alexander the Great’s empire helped spread:
Greek culture.
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The Peloponnesian War lasted from 431 BCE to 404 BCE.
How many years?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
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The Parthenon was built from 447 BCE to 432 BCE.
How many years did it take?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
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Alexander ruled from 336 BCE to 323 BCE.
How many years was his reign?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Question 1 of 5
The Greek city-states were:
Question 2 of 5
Which battle took place in 490 BCE?
Question 3 of 5
Socrates is known for:
Question 4 of 5
Greek drama included:
Question 5 of 5
Athenian democracy was limited because:
Lesson 5 · Classical world
🦅 Ancient Rome
A small city on the Tiber grew into a republic and then an empire that shaped law, language, roads and architecture across Europe and beyond.
🗳️ From city to Republic
By tradition Rome was founded in 753 BCE. After expelling its last king, Rome became a Republic in 509 BCE, governed by elected consuls, a Senate and assemblies. Ordinary citizens (plebeians) won rights from the nobles (patricians), including the Twelve Tables, Rome’s first written laws (about 450 BCE). Rome conquered Italy and then the Mediterranean, including defeating Carthage and Hannibal in the Punic Wars.
Republic: 509 BCE → 27 BCE (Augustus)
509 − 27 = 482 years
Twelve Tables about 450 BCE; Julius Caesar assassinated 44 BCE
450 − 44 = 406 years later
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👑 Empire
Civil wars ended the Republic. Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE, and his heir Augustus became the first emperor in 27 BCE. About 200 years of stability, the Pax Romana, followed. Rome built more than 80 000 km of roads, aqueducts and the Colosseum (opened 80 CE, holding about 50 000 spectators). Christianity was legalised in 313 CE. The Western Empire fell in 476 CE, while the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire survived until 1453.
Colosseum: 50 000 spectators, about 80 entrances
50 000 / 80 = 625 people per entrance
legion marches 30 km a day: 1500 km / 30 = 50 days
Byzantine Empire: Western fall 476 → Constantinople 1453: 1453 − 476 = 977 years
Latin grew into French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian, and Roman law shaped many modern legal systems.
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Republic
In the Roman Republic, power was held by:
Not a king.
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Pax Romana
The Pax Romana was a period of:
Peace.
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Aqueducts
Roman aqueducts were built to:
Water supply.
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Fall of Rome
The Western Roman Empire is traditionally said to have fallen in:
Late fifth century.
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The Roman Republic began in 509 BCE and ended in 27 BCE.
How many years did it last?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
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The Colosseum held about 50 000 people and had about 80 entrances.
About how many people used each entrance?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Divide.
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A Roman army marches 30 km each day.
How many days to travel 1500 km?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
days
Divide.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
The first Roman emperor was:
Question 2 of 5
Plebeians were:
Question 3 of 5
Rome fought Carthage in the:
Question 4 of 5
Which language grew from Latin?
Question 5 of 5
Which is a lasting Roman legacy?
Lesson 6 · World cultures
🌍 Early Africa & the Americas
While Greece and Rome flourished, other great civilisations were rising in Africa and the Americas, with their own writing, farming, mathematics and trade.
🏺 Kush and Aksum
Kush (Nubia, in present-day Sudan) was a rival of Egypt. Its kings conquered Egypt and ruled as the 25th Dynasty (about 744–656 BCE). Kush later centred on Meroë, a famous centre of iron-working, and built pyramids, more than in Egypt itself. Aksum (in Ethiopia and Eritrea) grew rich on Red Sea trade, minted its own coins, raised tall carved stelae, and under King Ezana adopted Christianity in about 330 CE, one of the first states to do so.
Kush ruled Egypt about 744 BCE → 656 BCE: 744 − 656 = 88 years
Aksum Christian about 330 CE
Rome legalised Christianity in 313 CE: 330 − 313 = 17 years later
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Trade in gold, salt and ivory across the Sahara and the Red Sea made African kingdoms rich while the Maya built cities in Central America.
🌽 Olmec and Maya
The Olmec (about 1200–400 BCE) on the Gulf coast of Mexico carved huge stone heads. The Maya built stone cities such as Tikal in Central America; their Classic period ran about 250–900 CE. They developed hieroglyphic writing, accurate calendars and a base-20 number system with a symbol for zero. A dot is 1 and a bar is 5. Place values rise 1, 20, 400.