Maps are scaled-down pictures of places. Learning to read direction, scale and grid references lets you find any location.
🧭 Direction, scale and symbols
Maps use a compass rose (N, E, S, W and in between), a key of symbols and a scale. A scale of 1 : 50 000 means 1 cm on the map is 50 000 cm (500 m) on the ground. A bar scale shows distance directly. Contour lines join places of equal height; close lines mean a steep slope.
scale 1 : 50 000: 1 cm = 500 m
4 cm on the map = 4 × 500 = 2000 m = 2 km
contours close together → steep
contours far apart → gentle
🖼️ See it
A larger second number means a smaller scale: less detail, bigger area. Measure the map distance, then multiply by the scale.
🌐 Latitude and longitude
Latitude lines run east–west, measured in degrees north or south of the Equator (0°), up to 90° at the poles. Longitude lines run north–south, measured east or west of the Prime Meridian (0°, through Greenwich), up to 180°. Together they give a coordinate such as 51° N, 0° W for London. The Tropic of Cancer is at about 23.5° N and the Tropic of Capricorn at about 23.5° S.
Equator: 0° Tropics: 23.5° N and S Poles: 90°
Prime Meridian: 0° International Date Line: about 180°
latitude first, then longitude
Latitude tells you how far north or south; longitude how far east or west. “Latitude is flat like a ladder’s rungs.”
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Equator
The Equator is at a latitude of:
Zero.
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Prime Meridian
The Prime Meridian passes through:
London.
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Contours
Contour lines drawn close together show:
Close means steep.
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Latitude
Lines of latitude run:
Flat rungs.
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A map has a scale of 1 : 50 000. 1 cm = 500 m.
A route measures 4 cm on the map. How long is it in metres?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
m
1 cm is 500 m.
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A map scale is 1 : 100 000. 1 cm represents 1 km.
A lake is 3.5 cm long on the map. How long is it in km?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
km
1 cm = 1 km.
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A town is at 10° N and another at 25° N, on the same line of longitude.
How many degrees of latitude separate them?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
°
Subtract.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Longitude is measured from the:
Question 2 of 5
A 1 : 25 000 map has 1 cm =
Question 3 of 5
A map key shows:
Question 4 of 5
Which is the highest possible latitude?
Question 5 of 5
The Tropic of Capricorn is at about:
Lesson 2 · Physical geography
🌋 Earth’s Structure & Landforms
The Earth’s surface is shaped by forces from inside and outside. Plates move, mountains rise and rivers carve valleys.
🌍 Layers and plates
The Earth has four layers: the thin crust (about 5–70 km), the mantle, the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The crust is broken into tectonic plates that move a few centimetres a year. At constructive boundaries plates move apart; at destructive boundaries one plate sinks under another; at conservative boundaries they slide past each other.
crust → mantle → outer core → inner core
plates move ~5 cm per year
in 1 million years: 5 cm × 1 000 000 = 50 km
🖼️ See it
Mountains, volcanoes and ocean trenches form where the crust’s tectonic plates move over the mantle.
⛰️ Mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes
Fold mountains form where plates collide (Himalayas, Alps). Volcanoes occur at destructive and constructive boundaries and hot spots. Earthquakes happen when stress along a fault is suddenly released; the focus is the point underground and the epicentre is directly above on the surface. The Pacific “Ring of Fire” has about 75% of the world’s volcanoes.
Himalayas: Indian and Eurasian plates collide
Mid-Atlantic Ridge: plates move apart
San Andreas Fault: plates slide past each other
The focus is below, the epicentre is above. Damage is usually greatest near the epicentre.
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Layers
The outermost layer of the Earth is the:
Where we live.
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Plates
Plates move apart at a:
Building new crust.
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Fold mountains
Fold mountains form where plates:
Pushed together.
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Epicentre
The epicentre of an earthquake is:
On the surface.
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A plate moves 5 cm per year.
How far does it move in 100 years, in cm?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
cm
Multiply.
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A plate moves 4 cm per year.
How many years to move 2 m (200 cm)?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Divide.
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About 75% of the world’s volcanoes are in the Ring of Fire. There are about 1500 active volcanoes.
About how many are in the Ring of Fire?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
75% of 1500.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
The mantle is mostly:
Question 2 of 5
The Ring of Fire surrounds the:
Question 3 of 5
A fault is a:
Question 4 of 5
The Himalayas formed from the collision of:
Question 5 of 5
The instrument that records earthquake waves is a:
Lesson 3 · Physical geography
🌦️ Weather & Climate
Weather is what happens today. Climate is the average pattern over many years.
🌡️ Elements of weather
Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a time: temperature (thermometer), rainfall (rain gauge), air pressure (barometer), wind speed (anemometer), humidity and cloud. Climate is the average weather over at least 30 years. Rain forms when warm moist air rises, cools, and condenses.
rainfall readings (mm): 12, 0, 8, 20 → total = 40 mm, mean = 40 / 4 = 10 mm
temperature range = max − min
28 − 12 = 16 °C
🖼️ See it
☀️ What controls climate
Climate depends on latitude (the Sun’s rays are more concentrated near the Equator), altitude (temperature falls about 6.5 °C per 1000 m), distance from the sea (the sea keeps coasts cooler in summer and milder in winter), ocean currents and prevailing winds. Relief rainfall occurs when air is forced up over mountains.
a town at sea level is 20 °C
at 2000 m: 20 − (2 × 6.5) = 7 °C
rain shadow: dry side of a mountain
Weather changes daily; climate changes over decades. One cold week does not disprove climate change.
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Barometer
A barometer measures:
Pressure.
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Climate
Climate is the:
Long-term.
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Altitude
As altitude increases, temperature generally:
Colder on mountains.
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Relief rain
Relief rainfall happens when air:
Mountains.
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A rain gauge reads 12, 0, 8 and 20 mm on four days.
What is the mean daily rainfall, in mm?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
mm
Add, then divide by 4.
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The maximum temperature is 28 °C and the minimum is 12 °C.
What is the temperature range, in °C?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
°C
Subtract.
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Temperature falls 6.5 °C per 1000 m. A town at sea level is 20 °C.
What is the temperature at 2000 m, in °C?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
°C
2 × 6.5 = 13.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
An anemometer measures:
Question 2 of 5
Which place usually has a warmer climate?
Question 3 of 5
Coastal areas tend to have:
Question 4 of 5
Condensation is when:
Question 5 of 5
A weather forecast covers:
Lesson 4 · Physical geography
🌴 Biomes & Ecosystems
Climate shapes the plants and animals of each region, creating major biomes.
🌳 Major biomes
A biome is a large ecosystem defined by climate and vegetation. Tropical rainforest: hot and wet all year, very high biodiversity. Savanna: warm with wet and dry seasons, grasses and scattered trees. Hot desert: under 250 mm of rain a year. Temperate forest: four seasons. Taiga: cold coniferous forest. Tundra: treeless and frozen subsoil (permafrost).
rainforest: 2000+ mm rain, ~27 °C
hot desert: <250 mm rain
tundra: below 0 °C for much of the year, permafrost
biodiversity: highest in rainforests
🖼️ See it
Temperature and rainfall decide which biome grows in a place.
🔗 Adapting and protecting
Organisms are adapted: a camel stores fat and tolerates heat; a polar bear has thick fur and fat. Rainforest trees have drip tips and buttress roots. Biomes are threatened by deforestation, desertification and climate change. About 30% of the Earth’s land is forest, and the Amazon holds roughly 10% of known species.
nutrient cycle: leaves fall → decay → nutrients absorbed by roots
rainforest soils are thin; cutting trees quickly leaves poor soil
Rainforest nutrients are in the plants, not the soil. That is why cleared land quickly loses fertility.
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Biome
A biome is:
Big natural region.
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Rainforest
Tropical rainforests are found near the:
Latitude 0°.
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Desert
Hot deserts receive:
Very little.
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Permafrost
Permafrost is found in:
Cold biome.
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A desert gets 150 mm of rain a year; a rainforest gets 2400 mm.
How many times more does the rainforest receive?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Divide.
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Forests cover about 30% of 15 000 million hectares of land.
About how many million hectares of forest is that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
million ha
30% of 15 000.
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A rainforest loses 50 hectares a day.
How many hectares are lost in 30 days?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
ha
Multiply.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Question 1 of 5
Savanna is characterised by:
Question 2 of 5
Which biome has the greatest biodiversity?
Question 3 of 5
A camel’s hump stores:
Question 4 of 5
Deforestation means:
Question 5 of 5
Taiga forests consist mostly of:
Lesson 5 · Human geography
🏙️ People & Places
Where people live, how they live and how places change are central questions in human geography.
👥 Population
The world population passed 8 billion in 2022. Population density = people ÷ area. It is high in river valleys and coastal plains and low in deserts, mountains and polar areas. Birth rate and death rate (per 1000 people) decide natural change. Migration moves people between places for push factors (war, poverty) and pull factors (jobs, safety).
density = people / area
6000 people in 50 km² → 6000 / 50 = 120 per km²
natural change = birth rate − death rate
20 − 8 = +12 per 1000
🖼️ See it
Density is population divided by area. Few people live where it is too dry, cold or mountainous, however big the country.
🏘️ Settlements
Settlements grow near water, flat land, resources and trade routes. A settlement has a site (its exact location) and a situation (its position relative to other places). A hierarchy runs from hamlet to village, town, city and megacity (10 million+ people). Over 56% of people now live in cities (urbanisation).
hamlet < village < town < city < megacity
site: a river bend on a hill
situation: 100 km from the coast, on a trade route
Site is “on the spot”; situation is “in the neighbourhood”.
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Density
Population density is measured in:
Per area.
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Push
Which is a push factor for migration?
A reason to leave.
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Pull
Which is a pull factor?
A reason to arrive.
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Megacity
A megacity has a population of at least:
Very big.
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A region of 50 km² has 6000 people.
What is the density, in people per km²?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
per km²
Divide people by area.
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A country has a birth rate of 20 and a death rate of 8 per 1000.
What is the natural change per 1000?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
per 1000
Subtract.
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A town has 12 000 people and grows at 5% a year.
How many people are added in a year?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
5% of 12 000.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Urbanisation is the:
Question 2 of 5
Why do many cities develop beside rivers?
Question 3 of 5
A settlement’s site is its:
Question 4 of 5
Which area is likely to have the lowest density?
Question 5 of 5
Net migration is:
Final Challenge
🏆 10-Question Challenge Quiz
Questions from every topic in this course. Pick an answer for each one, then hit Check My Answers.
0 / 10
💪 Keep practicing — go back through the lessons and retake the quiz!
Q1 · Maps, Scale & Coordinates
Which gives a location precisely?
Q2 · Maps, Scale & Coordinates
The Tropic of Capricorn is at about:
Q3 · Earth’s Structure & Landforms
At a destructive boundary:
Q4 · Earth’s Structure & Landforms
The instrument that records earthquake waves is a:
Q5 · Weather & Climate
Climate differs from weather because it:
Q6 · Weather & Climate
A weather forecast covers:
Q7 · Biomes & Ecosystems
Why is rainforest soil quickly exhausted after clearing?
Q8 · Biomes & Ecosystems
Taiga forests consist mostly of:
Q9 · People & Places
Which group of factors best explains why cities grow?