Climate change is a collective-action problem: every country benefits from cuts but each bears costs. How do we cooperate?
📜 From Rio to Paris
The UNFCCC (1992) established the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: rich countries, with the largest historical emissions, should lead. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding targets for developed countries only. The Paris Agreement (2015) has voluntary national pledges (NDCs) every 5 years with a “ratchet” to raise ambition. Loss and damage funding for vulnerable countries was agreed at COP27 (2022).
1992: UNFCCC
1997: Kyoto
2015: Paris
2022: loss and damage fund
China ≈ 30% of annual CO₂; US ≈ 13%; EU ≈ 7%
US cumulative emissions: largest since 1750
🖼️ See it
Kyoto bound only rich countries; Paris asks every country for its own national targets.
⚖️ Challenges
Challenges: free riders, carbon leakage (industry moves to places with weaker rules), fossil fuel dependence, finance for developing countries (the $100 billion a year pledge was reached late) and political cycles. Tools: emissions trading (EU ETS), carbon taxes, carbon border adjustments, subsidies for renewables and just transition policies for workers. Since 2015, projected warming by 2100 has fallen from about 4 °C to about 2.5–2.9 °C with current pledges.
current policies: ~2.7 °C by 2100
Paris goal: 1.5 °C
gap: 2.7 − 1.5 = 1.2 °C
Ambition gap: pledges so far are not enough to meet the 1.5 °C goal.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
Principle
The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities means:
Fair shares.
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Kyoto
The Kyoto Protocol set binding targets for:
Rich nations.
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Free rider
A free rider in climate policy is a country that:
Gets a benefit without paying.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Carbon leakage
Carbon leakage means:
Moves elsewhere.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
Current policies lead to about 2.7 °C warming; the Paris goal is 1.5 °C.
What is the gap, in °C?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
°C
Subtract.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
The Paris Agreement was in 2015 and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
How many years later was Paris?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
years
Subtract.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
A country must cut emissions from 500 to 350 million tonnes.
By what percentage?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
%
Fall ÷ original × 100.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Question 1 of 5
Emissions trading works by:
Question 2 of 5
A just transition aims to:
Question 3 of 5
COP stands for:
Question 4 of 5
Loss and damage funding supports:
Question 5 of 5
A carbon border adjustment:
Lesson 2 · Urban systems
🏙️ Megacities & Future Cities
By 2050 around two-thirds of people will live in cities. How we design them determines emissions, equality and wellbeing.
🌆 Megacity dynamics
There are over 30 megacities, mostly in Asia and Africa. Tokyo (about 37 million) is often listed as the largest urban area, though rankings depend on how a city’s edge is defined; some recent estimates put Jakarta first. Primate cities dominate a country’s economy and population. Global cities (London, New York, Tokyo, Singapore) hold headquarters, finance and connectivity. Urban form matters: dense, mixed-use cities use less energy per person than sprawling ones. Urban heat islands can be 2–5 °C warmer than their surroundings.
Tokyo ~37 million; Delhi ~33 million; Shanghai ~29 million
density: Manhattan ≈ 28 000 per km²; Houston ≈ 1400 per km²
ratio = 28 000 / 1400 = 20
🖼️ See it
A megacity has over 10 million people. Most of the fastest growth is now in Asia and Africa, bringing pressure on housing, transport and services.
🌿 Resilient and equitable cities
Resilience: designing for floods, heat and shocks (Rotterdam’s water squares, Singapore’s Marina Barrage). Equity: affordable housing and access to services in informal settlements; gentrification can displace residents when areas improve. Green infrastructure (trees, green roofs, sponge cities) cools and absorbs rain. Smart cities use data but raise privacy questions.
sponge city: surfaces absorb and store rainwater
tree canopy can cool streets by 2–8 °C
target: 30% canopy cover in many city plans
Cities are both a problem and a solution. They concentrate emissions yet allow efficient transport, housing and services.
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Primate city
A primate city is:
Dominant.
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Heat island
An urban heat island is:
Hot city.
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Gentrification
Gentrification occurs when:
Prices rise.
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Sponge city
A sponge city is designed to:
Absorb.
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Manhattan has about 28 000 people per km² and Houston about 1400.
How many times denser is Manhattan?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
×
Divide.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
Tokyo has about 37 million people and Delhi about 33 million.
How many million more live in Tokyo?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
million
Subtract.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
A city wants 30% tree canopy over 200 km².
How many km² of canopy is that?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
km²
30% of 200.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Question 1 of 5
A global city is characterised by:
Question 2 of 5
Green roofs help by:
Question 3 of 5
Dense, mixed-use cities usually:
Question 4 of 5
Which is a risk of smart cities?
Question 5 of 5
Which strategy supports equity?
Lesson 3 · Global systems
⚔️ Resources, Conflict & Cooperation
Resources can fuel conflict or cooperation. Understanding the difference matters for peace.
🛢️ Resource curse and competition
The resource curse is the paradox that countries rich in oil or minerals often have slower growth, corruption and conflict. Causes: Dutch disease (a strong currency hurts other exports), volatile prices and weak institutions. Examples: Nigeria (oil), the DRC (cobalt, coltan). Competition for water, land and critical minerals for batteries (lithium, cobalt) is rising. Some states, like Norway, avoid the curse with a sovereign wealth fund (over $1.5 trillion).
DRC: ~70% of world cobalt output
Chile + Australia: most of world lithium
Norway fund ≈ $1.5 trillion; population 5.5 million
per person ≈ 1 500 000 / 5.5 ≈ $273 000
🖼️ See it
Shared resources can cause disputes but also push countries to agree on rules for using them.
🕊️ Cooperation and governance
Conflict is not inevitable. Shared resource management works through treaties: the Indus Waters Treaty (1960), the Mekong River Commission, the Antarctic Treaty (1959) and the EU Common Fisheries Policy. Transparency (the EITI) and certification (Kimberley Process for diamonds) reduce “conflict resources”. Circular economy and recycling lower pressure on raw materials.
Scarcity can cause conflict, but also drive cooperation. Institutions make the difference.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
Resource curse
The resource curse describes:
A paradox.
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Dutch disease
Dutch disease occurs when:
A boom problem.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 7
Kimberley
The Kimberley Process aims to stop trade in:
Gems.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Sovereign fund
A sovereign wealth fund:
Saves wealth.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
The DRC produces about 70% of the world’s cobalt. World output is 200 000 tonnes a year.
About how many thousand tonnes does the DRC produce?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
thousand t
70% of 200 thousand.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
The Antarctic Treaty was in 1959 and the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960.
How many years between them?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
year
Subtract.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
A country earns 80% of its 50 billion export income from oil.
How many billion comes from oil?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
billion
80% of 50.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
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Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Which resource is vital for batteries?
Question 2 of 5
A weakness of depending on one export is:
Question 3 of 5
The Indus Waters Treaty shares rivers between:
Question 4 of 5
EITI promotes:
Question 5 of 5
Which reduces demand for raw materials?
Lesson 4 · Human geography
📍 Place, Space & Identity
Places are more than coordinates. People give them meaning, and those meanings change.
🏡 Sense of place
A place has location, physical features and meaning to people. Sense of place is the attachment and identity people feel. Space becomes place when it is given meaning. Concepts: insider and outsider perspectives, place marketing (cities promoting themselves), placelessness (generic airports and malls) and authenticity. Global brands and tourism can strengthen or erode local culture, an effect called glocalisation when global and local blend.
a hometown: sense of place
an airport: placelessness
glocalisation: a global fast-food chain with a local menu
🖼️ See it
John Agnew’s three aspects: two places in the same location can feel completely different to the people who live there.
🗣️ Culture and change
Culture includes language, religion, food, dress and customs. About 7000 languages exist and roughly 40% are endangered; one language disappears about every two weeks. Migration creates diaspora communities and multicultural cities. Heritage sites (UNESCO lists over 1200) preserve identity. Debates arise over cultural appropriation, nationalism and integration.
7000 languages × 40% endangered = 2800 at risk
1 language lost per 2 weeks → 26 a year
There is no single “authentic” culture. Cultures mix, adapt and are contested.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
Sense of place
Sense of place is:
Feeling.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 7
Placelessness
Placelessness describes:
Identical.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 7
Glocalisation
Glocalisation is:
Global plus local.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Diaspora
A diaspora is:
Spread out.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
There are about 7000 languages and 40% are endangered.
How many are endangered?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
40% of 7000.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
One language disappears every two weeks.
How many disappear in a year (52 weeks)?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
Divide.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
UNESCO lists over 1200 World Heritage sites; 50 are in one country.
What percentage of 1200 is 50 (to the nearest whole number)?
Round your answer as the question asks.
%
Divide and ×100.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
Place marketing is:
Question 2 of 5
An insider perspective is that of:
Question 3 of 5
Which threatens minority languages?
Question 4 of 5
Heritage sites are protected to:
Question 5 of 5
Multicultural means a place:
Lesson 5 · Skills
🔭 Geographical Research & Data
Advanced geography uses data, maps and statistics to build evidence-based arguments.
🛰️ GIS and remote sensing
GIS (geographic information systems) stores layers of spatial data (roads, rivers, population) so you can overlay and analyse them. Remote sensing uses satellites (Landsat, Sentinel) to monitor deforestation, urban growth and ice melt. GPS pinpoints locations. Spatial analysis: buffers, density maps and hotspots. Always consider scale and resolution.
buffer: area within 500 m of a river
resolution: 10 m means each pixel is 10 m × 10 m = 100 m²
NDVI: satellite index of vegetation health
🖼️ See it
A good enquiry names its limits: sample size, sampling method and what the data cannot show.
📈 Statistics for geographers
Use correlation (Spearman’s rank or Pearson’s r) between –1 and +1. A value near +1 is a strong positive relationship. Use percentage change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100. Standard deviation shows spread. Beware of sampling bias, outliers and the ecological fallacy (treating area averages as individuals). Present uncertainty honestly.
old 80, new 100 → change = 20/80 = 25%
r = +0.9: strong positive
r = −0.8: strong negative
r = 0: no linear relationship
Report limits. A correlation of +0.9 across 5 sites is weaker evidence than across 500.
✏️ Quick check · 1 of 7
GIS
GIS software lets you:
Layers.
✏️ Quick check · 2 of 7
Remote sensing
Remote sensing uses:
From a distance.
✏️ Quick check · 3 of 7
Correlation
A correlation coefficient of −0.9 indicates:
Sign and size.
✏️ Quick check · 4 of 7
Ecological fallacy
The ecological fallacy is:
Group vs individual.
✍️ Type your answer · 5 of 7
Deforestation rose from 80 to 100 km² per year.
What is the percentage increase?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
%
Change ÷ original × 100.
✍️ Type your answer · 6 of 7
Satellite pixels are 10 m by 10 m.
What area does one pixel cover, in m²?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
m²
Multiply the sides.
✍️ Type your answer · 7 of 7
A map shows 4 sites within a 500 m river buffer out of 20 sites.
What percentage are in the buffer?
Enter an exact answer, without rounding.
%
Divide, ×100.
📝 Lesson quiz · 5 questions
0 / 5
Re-read the lesson, then give it another go.
Question 1 of 5
A GPS receiver determines:
Question 2 of 5
Outliers are:
Question 3 of 5
Spearman’s rank is used to test:
Question 4 of 5
Higher resolution means:
Question 5 of 5
Why report uncertainty?
Final Challenge
🏆 10-Question Challenge Quiz
Questions from every topic in this course. Pick an answer for each one, then hit Check My Answers.
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💪 Keep practicing — go back through the lessons and retake the quiz!
Q1 · Global Climate Governance
The main weakness of the Paris Agreement is that:
Q2 · Global Climate Governance
A carbon border adjustment:
Q3 · Megacities & Future Cities
Why are future cities critical for climate goals?
Q4 · Megacities & Future Cities
Which strategy supports equity?
Q5 · Resources, Conflict & Cooperation
Resource conflicts are best reduced by:
Q6 · Resources, Conflict & Cooperation
Which reduces demand for raw materials?
Q7 · Place, Space & Identity
Which statement best reflects geographers’ view of place?